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How Covid-19 has changed our vocabulary

Outbreak, epidemic or pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic has altered our vocabulary introducing us to new words and new combinations of words or old words with new significance. Previously the average person has not used the word pandemic with such frequency as they do now. The World Health Organisation (WHO) has defined a pandemic as “a worldwide spread of a new disease.”  COVID-19 fits that definition. Prior to 2020 the most recent pandemic was the H1N1 influenza or swine flu pandemic. More often we use the terms outbreak or sometimes epidemic to describe unusual occurrences of a disease. The WHO defines an epidemic as “the occurrence in a community or region of cases of an illness, specific health-related behaviour, or other health-related events clearly in excess of normal expectancy.” This suggests that there can be a measles epidemic but not a measles pandemic, as measles is not a new disease. We are learning to be clear about the use of these related terms to define infectious diseases. The discussion and information around COVID-19 has indeed taught us to differentiate between these terms and to refrain from using them loosely.

Social and Physical Distancing

Some words like social distance have expanded definitions now. According to Merriam-Webster social distance originally meant the “acceptance or rejection of social interaction between individuals and especially those belonging to different social groups, (such as those based on race, ethnicity, class or gender.) Now it says that social distancing means “staying away or keeping a physical distance from other persons who are not in your household in order to avoid contracting a contagious disease.” The rule is that you should keep a physical distance of 2 metres or 6 feet from other persons when you are in public. So social distancing is a form of physical distancing. Sometimes it is voluntary and very often it is mandatory. You stay away from sports events either because they are not allowed to take place or if they do then no spectators are allowed at the venues. You form a queue at the supermarket and you stay some distance from the person in front of you and the person behind you also keeps a physical distance.

Some of the words and expressions that have recently come into the vocabulary of the average person were already in use in the industrial and construction industry and in the medical field. One such term is personal protective equipment now often referred to as PPE. Personal protective equipment is a workplace health and safety requirement. The familiar hard hats, heavy boots and gloves of construction workers are examples of PPE appropriate to that workplace. We see that airport ramp workers wear earmuffs to protect their hearing from loud noises and welders use protective helmets and shields and goggles. During this pandemic we hear the term PPE being used exclusively to refer to the protective gear needed for health workers to prevent the spread of infection. This can include aprons, masks, gowns, face shields, even head and foot covering. The pandemic has brought a term specific to the workplace right into the general conversation. PPE is often discussed in the media and we too raise questions and follow the discussion on the adequacy and availability of PPE for health workers.

Separation during COVID-19

Many of the words we use in relation to this new disease are words of separation such as quarantine, self-isolation, social distancing and physical distancing. Separation is an overwhelming aspect of the pandemic. It is a major measure for the prevention of the spread of the disease. Individuals are required to stay apart in locations and situations where they would normally have been congregating in groups or in crowds. Quarantine is another form of separation if you have come into contact with someone who tested positive for the virus or you have been exposed to the disease in any way or even if you have visited a country that has a high number of cases. You would have to remain apart from others for a period of 14 days. That gives enough time to see whether you develop the disease. Separation becomes more extreme if you contract the disease. Then you are isolated. Isolation is a strong word. While social distancing means that you can be among others but you allow several feet to separate you from the next person. Isolation means that you have to be alone with no physical contact with others except with health personnel. Self-isolation meanwhile is a strange term that is often used to refer to an individual’s voluntary decision to stay away from others because he thinks that he has been exposed to the disease.

Most of these forms of separation resulting from COVID-19 are on an individual basis. However an entire country can separate itself from other countries through a total lockdown when it closes its borders to travel. A lockdown could also be regional when travel into and out of a city is restricted. In January, China placed the city of Wuhan, which had the first cases of the virus, under lockdown. The residents of the city were restricted to their homes and they were not allowed to leave the city. This lasted until early April. Other countries have also introduced regulations that restrict persons to their houses for a period of time through curfews, in order to reduce contact between individuals. All lockdowns are aimed at curbing the spread of the COVID-19 disease. Lockdown is a self-explanatory word.

Using storm words to describe COVID-19

The words to describe increases in cases of COVID-19 are borrowed from storm terminology. A sudden significant increase in cases is a surge. That term reminds one of the storm surge that accompanies a hurricane – dangerous and often deadly. We have all been warned to expect a second wave of infections. The first series of infections, which is the current situation, is the first wave and after we have controlled this, another series of infections are expected in a second wave. The connotations are not a picture of a gentle swell but rather that of a tsunami that will appear after the effects of the disease have been controlled and the number of cases substantially reduced. After the ground stops shaking here comes the wave.

COVID-19 changes lives and changes vocabulary

At this time, separation whether individually, regionally or nationally is the one measure that has helped to stop transmission of the COVID-19 infection. When the number of infected cases decreases, governments ease the restrictions. Some businesses are allowed to operate as long as social distancing is practised. More travel even outside of the country is permitted. Unfortunately most efforts to ease restrictions are followed by an increase in new cases of infection. A reliable and effective treatment for the COVID-19 virus infection is yet to be found.

Meanwhile our epidemiological education increases and our vocabulary accepts the new words and phrases or new uses of familiar words resulting from our efforts to deal with COVID-19. The disease has even affected our language.

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How to use the conjunction “both… and”

It’s a correlative conjunction

Let us review the definition of a conjunction.  A conjunction is a word that connects or establishes a relationship between two or more words, phrases, or clauses.

Example: I ate the sandwich because I was hungry.

I ate the sandwich is an independent clause. I was hungry is also an independent clause. The word because is a conjunction connecting and showing a causal relationship between the two clauses.

When both is paired with and, they are known as a correlative conjunction.

A correlative conjunction is a pair of words that joins equivalent grammatical structures. Some correlative constructions are: both…and, either …or, neither …nor, not only….but also, whether …or.

The word both refers to two things or two actions or two persons. When you use both followed by and, you are telling the readers that you will identify or draw their attention to two things – first one thing and then the other.

Example: Both the kettle and the frying pan have bottoms made of copper.

In this sentence you can see that we referred to the kettle first and then to the second thing which is the frying pan.

You must have equivalent grammatical structures

Now let us look at another aspect of this correlative conjunction. It must join equivalent grammatical structures. This means that if the first item referred to is a noun then the second item must also be a noun. If the first item is a verb then the second item must also be a verb.

Example:

The hospitality students both cooked and served the meal.

Here you can see that equivalent grammatical structures are used with the correlative conjunction.   A verb in the past tense “cooked”is used after both and similarly a verb in the past tense “served” is used after and.

Here is another example.

Both the team captain and the coach worked diligently to prepare the players for the match.

In this example the correlative conjunction is used with two nouns. Both is used with the noun “the team captain” while and is used with the noun “the coach”.

Look carefully at the sentence below.

The concert was both criticised by the newspapers and the radio stations.

This sentence is not correct. The correlative conjunction is not joining equivalent grammatical structures.  Both is followed by a verb, while and is followed by a noun.

The correct sentence should be: The concert was criticised by both the newspapers and the radio stations.

That correction shows two nouns being linked by the correlative conjunction, both … and.

Put the word both in its correct position

You have to position the word both correctly to indicate what two things, or persons or actions are linked by the correlative conjunction.

Look at the sentence below.

I watched both the firing of the canon and the lowering of the flag at the sunset ceremony.

In this sentence both is placed before one event – the firing of the canon- so we expect that the other part of the conjunction, that is, the word and would be linking to another event in the same sentence. It does this by linking to – the lowering of the flag.

However if you position both in front of watched – I both watched the firing of the canon and the lowering of the flag at the sunset ceremony -you would have an incorrect sentence. You took one action. You watched. Now the reader expects you to link to another action that you took. However you took no other action. This means that you have put both in the wrong position in the sentence.

However if you intended to link two actions that you took then you have to include this second action. You can write for example – I both watched and photographed the firing of the canon and the lowering of the flag at the sunset ceremony. This demonstrates that you are linking watched and photographed.

You can also determine the correct position of both by checking to see whether the grammatical structure after both is the same grammatical structure that you have after and.

These tips should give you the confidence to use correctly the construction both… and.

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How to avoid using redundancies

Redundancy

A redundant expression uses a word that is not needed because the meaning of that word is already contained in another word or expression in the sentence. A redundant word can be omitted without altering the meaning of a sentence. Redundancy also refers to the use of an additional word that is already included in the meaning of another word.

These are definitions  

The English Oxford Living Dictionary defines redundant as: “(of words or data) able to be omitted without loss of meaning or function.

”The Macmillan Contemporary Dictionary defines redundancy as: “Use of more words than are necessary to convey an idea; needless repetition.

Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines redundant as:“Characterised by or containing an excess, specifically: using more words than necessary.”

You should avoid redundant words and expressions in speech and especially in writing.

The sentence below contains a redundant expression.

Example: I am going to reverse back the car.  In that sentence back is a redundant word because reverse means to go backwards. The word back is already included in the meaning of reverse so it can be omitted. The correct sentence is:  I am going to reverse the car.

You may have often heard someone say: Repeat that for me again. Repeat again is a redundant expression because repeat means to say or do again. The meaning of again is already included in the word repeat. You should omit the word again.

Other redundant expressions are:

in my opinion, I think; Your opinion is what you think so use one of those expressions but not both at the same time.

new innovation; An innovation is a new method, a new idea. The use of the word new with innovation is not necessary.

He was the shorter of the two twins. The word “twins” refers to two persons so the use of “two” is redundant.

The events will start at 11 a.m. in the morning. The abbreviation a.m. refers to a time in the morning. Adding “in the morning” creates a redundancy.

The reason I lost the race is because I was tired. 

Reason….is because is a redundant expression. Reason already implies a cause so you do not need the word because. Likewise the word because indicates that you are stating a reason so you would not need the word reason. You have to use one or the other. Correct usage is: “The reason I lost the race is that I was tired” or “I lost the race because I was tired.”

Avoid using redundant expressions when you are speaking or writing to make your use of language more precise.

Here are some other common redundant expressions.

free gift

merge together

exact same

completely filled

protrude out

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How to help students use the grammar they learnt

Make grammar your friend

I notice that some students do not put into practice the grammar rules they are taught. Their subjects and verbs do not agree. Spelling goes out of the window and punctuation especially is random, following no known rules.

When these students get assignments on individual aspects of English, some do it well, even very well, showing that they understand the concept. In a grammar activity they can identify all the mistakes of agreement and can correct the errors. However if they have to write a report or a letter for instance, they do not apply those same agreement rules to their writing.

If you ask these students to write a bit of dialogue between two characters, they would write an interesting exchange but they would have little or no punctuation required for dialogue. Quotation marks would be flung in at random.

Some students would know how to identify a dangling modifier if they were given a quiz about that grammar rule. They would also correct the sentence to eliminate the dangling modifier but even while doing that they would make mistakes of tense in other parts of the corrected sentence.

I would like to share three ways to help these students make grammar their friend and use the grammar they have learnt.

Give a rubric

Giving a rubric for any writing assignment will help the student see what you accept as good quality and what would be not-so-good writing. Include a rubric and scores for grammar and mechanics and usage. Identify exactly what skills you will test and what marks you will award. Show how you arrive at that mark.

Giving a rubric is a way to tell the student that although they are writing a letter, for instance, it is important to get more than just the format and content right. The mechanics of the language must also be correct. When you include scores for expected levels of grammar, you are emphasising that correct use of grammar is a large part of showing that they know how to use the language.

Give a checklist

A very specific checklist will help. You can ask the student to check off a list of things they should have done while writing.

Example: 

  • subjects and verbs agree
  • words are spelt correctly
  • the correct tense is used
  • pronoun references are correct
  • punctuation is appropriate

You can put about five items on the list. You can also create the list to include the grammar areas or rules that your students repeatedly get wrong.

Let students read their writing aloud

Have the students read their writing aloud. They usually discover their mistakes when they hear them. Or they usually hear their mistakes when they read their work aloud. While writing, students may feel that they have completed everything perfectly. However hearing their work would alert the students to words they may have left out. Some parts of their writing may sound wrong and this would alert them to grammatical errors. When students hear the words they have written they will hear the difference between what they actually wrote and what they thought they had written. Sometimes it is even more helpful if the student hears someone else read the assignment.

Now you can try these tips on how to help students apply grammar rules in their writing.

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How to prevent misplaced and dangling modifiers

What is a modifier?

A modifier is a word, phrase or clause that describes or limits another word, phrase or clause.

An adjective is an example of a modifier. Look at this first sentence:

This is a bag.

Then look at this next sentence:

This is a leather bag.

In the second sentence we have included the word leather as an adjective to describe the bag. The word leather is a modifier that tells us more about the bag.

An adverb can also be used to modify

The cat stretched lazily. In this sentence the adverb lazily is a modifier describing how the cat stretched. The adverb lazily is modifying the verb stretched.

A modifier can be a phrase.

Example: Richard picked up the stone with the rounded edges.  The phrase with the rounded edges is a modifier of the noun stone. The phrase is describing the stone.

A clause can be a modifier.

Example: He took a walk after he washed the dishes. The clause …after he washed the dishes describes or tells when the action of taking a walk took place.

Misplaced modifiers

Where you place a modifier determines the meaning of your message. A misplaced modifier is one that is placed too far from the word that it is describing. This can make your meaning unclear or ambiguous. You should place your modifiers close to the word or words they modify.

Example: She put the plastic laptop cover on the table.

This seems to mean that the laptop is plastic. Or is it the cover that is plastic? It is unclear.

She put the plastic cover of the laptop on the table. When you put the modifier plastic next to the word it describes the sentence becomes clear.

Here is another example of a misplaced modifier.

Example: The dog is lying under the table that is heavily bandaged. This sentence is very awkward because the modifier is placed close to the word table suggesting that the table is bandaged. To make the sentence clear the modifier…that is heavily bandaged should be placed next to the word dog that it is describing.   

Limiting modifiers

Words such as never, only, almost, just, hardly, scarcely, simply and merely limit the word they precede. Where you place these words in a sentence affects the meaning of the sentence. Here are some examples of how the placement of the word only can change the meaning of the sentence.

Scientists say that ants live in colonies only.

(The ants do not live in any other type of organisation)

Only scientists say that ants live in colonies.

(Nobody else says that)

Scientists say that only ants live in colonies.

(No other insects live in colonies)

Remember to place only or any other limiting modifier in a position that gives the sentence the meaning you intend.

Dangling modifiers

A dangling modifier occurs when the noun or pronoun to which it refers is not in the sentence. Sometimes a dangling modifier is called a dangling participle or hanging participle. When a sentence begins with a participle it must refer to a noun or pronoun in the main clause.

Example: After watering the plants the gardener closed the gate.

After watering the plants refers to the noun gardener. It is the gardener who is doing the action of watering the plants. In this sentence the modifying phrase is not dangling.

Now change the sentence to …

After watering the plants the gate was closed.

In this sentence there is no reference to who is doing the action. The noun gate in the main clause cannot water the plants. After watering the plants is a dangling modifier. In order to correct this you have to put a noun in the main clause to which the modifier can refer as we did in the first sentence.

Examples: Rowing across the river, the moonlight glowed on the water.

Dangling modifier. The moonlight cannot row.

Rowing across the river I saw how the moonlight glowed on the water.

Corrected sentence. Include the pronoun I to show who was doing the action.

The rain came down while walking the dog.

Dangling modifier (The rain cannot walk the dog)

While George was walking the dog the rain came down.

Corrected sentence. (We include a noun to which the modifier can refer.)

When you write be sure to avoid dangling and misplaced modifiers. Be very careful where you place limiting modifiers. Make your writing clear and easy to understand.

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What is the difference between past and passed

Learn to use pass, past and passed

People are often confused about the use of the words past, pass and passed. These  words have different meanings and each one is used differently. One reason for confusion is that all three words sound alike especially pass and past.

Should we say, “I walked past the school.”

Or should we say, “I walked pass the school.”   The first sentence is correct. The second sentence is not correct.  Let’s see why.

What is the meaning of past and pass?

Noun

The word past has more than one meaning.   Past is a noun that means a time that has gone by, or the history of an individual or a nation

Example: In the past, gentlemen wore powdered wigs. (time that has gone by)

I had an adventurous past as a bush pilot. (history of an individual)

Preposition

As a preposition past means : beyond in time, in space, in amount

Prepositions describe relationships in time or space

Example: There is a large pond past the mill.

In this sentence past is the preposition showing the position in space or the location of the pond in relation to the mill.

Here is another sentence which shows the use of past as a preposition showing a position in time.

When we found the lost hikers it was past midnight.

Adverb

As an adverb, past also means so as go beyond; by. Adverbs describe or modify verbs.

Example: Although I tried to stop the bus, it drove past.

Adjective

As an adjective past means gone by, belonging to a former time, time just passed

I spent the past hour trying to solve an equation. The king apologised for the past injustices of his ancestors.

On the other hand “pass” is a verb that means to go or move; to proceed, to go or move by.

Example: I pass the church everyday on my way to work.

Passed is the past tense of the verb pass

Example: The cyclist passed the hikers two hours ago.

How to use past, pass and passed

However when there is confusion between past and passed it is not the noun which creates the confusion. Instead it is when past is used as an adjective, adverb or as a preposition that it is confused with passed or pass. 

The way to solve the confusion is to determine which part of speech you need for what you are about to say or to write.  Here are some examples.

I passed the white cow on my way to school.

This is the use of the verb showing an action that has taken place. The only way that passed can be used is as a verb and as a past tense of the verb to pass.

Here is another sentence:  

I walked past the white cow on my way to school.

Here you would be using a preposition to show where you went or your position.

It is incorrect to say I walked pass the white cow on my way to school. The word pass is a verb and cannot be used to modify another verb or to show a position in space. Although the two words pass and past sound alike they are different parts of speech and so must be used in ways appropriate to their function.

The old truck creaked past.

Here you would be using an adverb to show how the truck moved.

When you are giving directions you also need to be careful about which word to use. You can say:

Walk past the library and then you will come to the police station.

Or

When you pass the library you will come to the police station.

 So if we return to the first two sentences at the top of the page you now know why sentence one is correct  – I walked past the school. You do not need a verb there for the sentence already has a verb which is walked.  You use past as a preposition to show your position. It shows or tells where you are- past the school.

The second sentence is not correct – I walked pass the school – because pass is a verb and the sentence already has a verb walked.

A useful tip to help you remember the difference between past, passed and pass is that past is never used as a verb.

Past is not a verb.

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Why do pronouns need an antecedent?

What is an antecedent?

Pronouns are used in place of a noun. This word that the pronoun replaces is called an antecedent.  It is the antecedent of the pronoun. An antecedent comes before the pronoun that refers to it.  Here are some examples:

1. The mother held a rattle and the baby played with it.

2. Mike entered the cycling race and he won first prize.

In the first example above the pronoun it is used in place of the noun rattle. In this case rattle is the antecedent of the pronoun it.  The pronoun it refers to rattle.

In the second sentence the pronoun he is used in place of the noun Mike. The noun Mike is the antecedent of the pronoun he. As you can see the he in the sentence refers to Mike.

What is faulty pronoun reference?

Sentence with antecedent and pronoun in circles
Identifying pronoun and its antecedent

Your pronouns must refer directly to their antecedent. When it is not clear what is the antecedent of a pronoun, writing can become ambiguous. You can leave your reader confused. You can fail to deliver the correct information. Miscommunication can be the result.

Here is an example of an unclear pronoun reference:

After taking the drill from the toolbox, Fred gave it away.

Here we are not sure if the pronoun it refers to the toolbox or to the drill. We do not know what is the antecedent of it. We are confused as to whether Fred gave away the toolbox or whether he gave away the drill.

We can rewrite the sentence as follows and remove the ambiguity.

Fred gave away the drill after he took it from the toolbox.

In this new sentence it is clear that the pronoun it refers to drill.  The antecedent of it is drill. Now we are sure of what item Fred gave away.

You can also avoid a faulty pronoun reference by rewriting the sentence without the use of a pronoun.

Example: After taking out the drill, Fred gave away the toolbox.

This new construction makes it clear what Fred gave away.

Examples of faulty pronoun reference

Here are some other examples of faulty pronoun reference. These sentences leave the reader guessing about the antecedent of a pronoun.

1. Carla and her mother watched the parade but she did not like the fireworks.

Here it is unclear whether the antecedent of she is Carla or her mother.

2. The Sparrows defeated the Marbles and they hired a new coach.

In this sentence the faulty pronoun reference leaves us guessing as to which team hired a new coach. They is a plural pronoun and there are two plural nouns preceding it. There are two possible antecedents and this uncertainty leaves the reader confused.

3.  The black hen and the white hen which had chicks scratched a hole in the yard.

Which hen had chicks? Once again we are left guessing.    Where you have two possible antecedents your pronoun reference can be unclear.

What happens when you leave out the antecedent?

The examples above are unclear because there are two possible antecedents for the pronoun. However you may find that a pronoun is used in a sentence and there is no noun or antecedent to which it can refer.

Example: Sandra can draw but she does not use it.

In this sentence the pronoun reference is very unclear. We know that the pronoun she refers to Sandra. The other pronoun it has no noun to which it can refer. There is only one noun in the sentence and that is the word Sandra. It cannot refer to Sandra for Sandra is a person. We can guess that the writer is referring to Sandra’s talent for drawing. We could rephrase the sentence and get rid of the pronoun it.

Example: Sandra can draw but she does not use that talent.

Another way to avoid the unclear pronoun reference is to include a noun as an antecedent for the pronoun it.

Example: Sandra has artistic talent but she does not use it.

Now the pronoun it has the antecedent talent to which it can refer.

Be careful when writing and avoid unclear pronoun reference.

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Can you use the passive voice?

Is it wrong to use the passive voice?

Have you noticed how the spelling and grammar check on your computer flags every use of the passive voice as an error and prompts you to change to the use of the active voice? By now you are beginning to wonder if you can ever use the passive voice.

If we are not encouraged to use the passive voice, then why is there a passive voice? First let’s explain what is the passive voice.

What is the passive voice?

Usually in a sentence the subject performs the action to the object. This is the active voice.

Active Voice:  Tom threw the ball. (The subject “Tom’ performs the action.)

When the action is performed upon the subject, this is the use of the passive voice.

Passive Voice: The ball was thrown by Tom. (The action is done to the subject “ball”.)

Look at the two examples again and you will see that the object of the sentence in the active voice becomes the subject of the sentence written in the passive voice. “Ball “ is the object of the active sentence and in the passive sentence “ball” becomes the subject.

Common reasons to use the passive voice

1. Use the passive voice for emphasis

You can use the passive voice when it is more important to emphasise an action or the object of the action rather than the agent of the action.

  • The streetlights have to be replaced.

Here you want the emphasis on the state of the streetlights rather than on who is responsible for replacing them. You want to show that the streetlights are not functioning.

  • Large boulders were brought down by the ghaut.

If you want to focus on the size and type of material brought down by the ghaut you make that the subject of the sentence by using the passive voice.

2. You can use the passive voice for business communication

In business correspondence some types of writing are formal and are usually expressed in the passive voice. Examples of these are notices of meetings, notices of auctions and notices giving information to the general public. 

Example:

Notice is hereby given that the thirty-second Annual General Meeting of Tora Co. Ltd will be held at Kranfour located on Garrough’s Main Road, on Wednesday July 24, 2019 at 5:00 p.m.

3. The passive voice is used in cases of evasion of responsibility

Mistakes were made

The passive voice is also used when the writer does not want to say who did the action. A famous passive expression is, “Mistakes were made.” This is a deliberate use of the passive voice to avoid identifying who is responsible for the mistakes. It is used when someone wants to avoid taking the responsibility for an action or decision.

In one example President Reagan said “mistakes were made” when his administration sold arms to Iran and used the money to help finance rebels in Nicaragua.  This use of the passive voice is sometimes adopted by politicians or persons with positions of responsibility in important organisations.

4. When making a general statement you can use the passive voice

The passive voice can be used to express a common knowledge or if the author of a saying is unknown.

Example: Love is said to be all-forgiving.

5. When you do not know who is doing the action:

  • My bike was stolen from my driveway.

or when it is not important to know the agent:

  • I’m not staying at this hotel. I was offered a room elsewhere.

6. When the agent of the action can be determined from the context of the sentence:

  • I was asked to count the number of participants attending the workshop.
  • The flight was overbooked and some passengers were being encouraged to give up their seats.

7. When making a promise or assurance.

  • Your identity will be kept a secret.

The use of the passive is not a grammatical error contrary to the grammar checker of your computer. The passive voice has its uses.

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Know your negatives

A yellow traffic sign that warns against making the grammatical error of using double negatives
No double negatives warning sign

Common negative words

Generally we think of negative words as “no”, “not” and other words formed with  “no” such as “nobody” and “nothing”.

“Not” is the most common word we use to make a statement or an expression negative. We just attach “not” to a helping or auxiliary verb and it gives a negative meaning to the verb and to the sentence. Instead of “not” you can use the contraction of not which is “n’t”. This is added to a helping or auxiliary verb to form the negative.

Example: If we add “not” or “n’t” to “have” we get “have not” and “haven’t”.

To make “have eaten” negative we would use “have not eaten” or  “haven’t eaten”.

I was fishing in the river.

Negative – I was not fishing in the river.

                      I wasn’t fishing in the river.

Another common negative word is “no”. It is often a very emphatic indication of the negative.

“Are you going to the concert?”

“No I am staying home instead.

You can also use it in rules or notices. No swimming is allowed near the pier.

Double negatives

One rule to remember is that you cannot use two negatives in the same clause. This error is the use of a double negative. Look at these sentences.

“No one can’t tell me what to do.”  

I won’t do nothing to stop him from entering the race. They are both incorrect. They show the use of a double negative. In the first sentence the word “no” is negative and the word “can’t” is also negative.  In the second sentence the word “nothing” is negative and “won’t” is also negative.i

These words are negative too

Some words do not look negative but are negative in meaning and usage. These words are” hardly”, “scarcely” and “barely”. These are negative adverbs. 

According to the Cambridge Dictionary the words are defined as follows:

scarcely means… only just; not,  

hardly means…  only just; certainly not

and barely means …by the smallest amount; only just.

These sentences below show the negative meanings of “hardly”.

Hardly anyone attended the meeting. This means that not many persons attended.

I hardly ever get a cold.  This is means the same as – I do not get a cold often.

Because these words are negative you should not use them with other negative words or you would be making the mistake of using a double negative. Look at these sentences. “I can hardly wait for my vacation.” This is correct.  However this next sentence is not correct. “I can’t hardly wait for my vacation.” This is an example of using a double negative. “Can’t” is negative and “hardly” is negative.

You should also avoid using another negative word with “scarcely” and “barely”.

It is correct to say, “I can scarcely squeeze into these jeans.”  But it is incorrect to say

“I can’t scarcely squeeze into these jeans.”

 Or “I did not barely understand the instructions”. In both cases you would be using a double negative.

Position of hardly when indicating time

When you use “hardly” to indicate the timing of an action you should begin the sentence with “hardly” and invert the subject and verb and use “when” in the clause describing a second action.

Example:

Hardly had I entered the house when the storm broke.

Hardly…… inverted subject and verb…..when

You begin the sentence with hardly and instead of saying I had you invert that to had I and then use when to show the timing of the second action.  This construction shows that one action followed immediately after another. In the example sentence this construction shows that the storm followed immediately after the person entered the house.

You use the same construction if using “scarcely” to indicate the timing of an event. Begin with “scarcely”, invert subject and verb and use “when” in the clause following. Scarcely had I fallen asleep when the fire alarm sounded.

Position of hardly in other sentences

In other sentences “hardly” is usually placed midway between the subject and the main verb. I hardly take that route to go to school. The subject is “I” and the main verb is “take”. Notice that “hardly” is positioned between them.  

 “Scarcely” is used in the same way. Tim scarcely makes a living from growing corn.

“Tim” is the subject and “makes” is the verb. Notice the position of “scarcely” midway between them.

I barely managed to meet the deadline for entering the competition. In this sentence “barely” is placed between the subject “I” and the main verb “managed”.

Rules to remember

 The main rules to remember when using these negative adverbs are:

Do not use another negative word in the same clause or you will make the grammatical error of using a double negative.

In sentences indicating timing of events, when you use the construction “Hardly  (followed by inverted subject and verb) this is followed by “when”.

“Hardly……..when”

Now go ahead and use your negative words with confidence.

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How subjects and verbs agree even with words between them

Avoid long sentences

One of the reasons why people make mistakes of agreement is that they use long sentences. It is more noticeable in speech than in writing. Often you can hear a speaker getting carried away with making a point. But the speaker adds so many phrases and clauses to the sentence that the subject is forgotten.

No matter how many phrases you use, one rule of agreement is that intervening phrases do not change the number of the verb. An intervening phrase is one that comes between the subject and the verb.         

Example: The birds in the pond search for food.                                                                                         

The phrase in the pond comes between the subject birds and the verb search. Another way to express this rule is that words coming after the subject do not change its number.A clause can also come between the subject and the verb.

Example: The headmaster who trained the lions has run away with the circus.

The clause, who trained the lions comes between the subject headmaster and the verb has.

When we speak and write we often add phrases and clauses to the subject to describe it or add some quality to it.  Some persons get carried away with the description they have made and they forget what is the subject.

Take a look at the sentence below.

The lizard, sitting on the rock among the plants, is sunning itself.

Lizard is the subject. It is followed by two phrases sitting on the rock and among the plants. These phrases though adding to the subject to expand its meaning do not change the number of the subject. The lizard is still singular. It is only one lizard so the verb should be singular and we use the verb is. W

When one noun is singular and the other is plural

What may cause confusion is when the noun in the phrase or clause is different in number to the subject. In the example sentence above we have lizard as the subject and this is singular. In the phrases following we have another noun rock that is singular too. In addition we have plants that is plural. That noun is a different number to the subject and it comes just before we have to choose a verb to complete the sentence. Because the word plants is the last noun spoken or written before the verb, persons tend to make the verb agree with it. This is incorrect. 

Don’t lose sight of your subject

When you string together lots of phrases or even a subordinate clause after your subject keep in mind the number of the subject of your sentence.  When another noun in your sentence is plural and the subject is singular be careful. Similarly when the subject is plural and the other noun in a following phrase is singular, be careful as well.  Remember your subject. That is the only word to determine the number of the verb.

It’s a good idea to use shorter sentences. If you have to use a long sentence do not lose sight of your subject. Remember that your verb has to agree with that subject.